The exeges often act as mediators of these sources, selecting the most appropriate to explain each verse and occasionally adding their own perspectives. Context plays a pivotal role in shaping their interpretations, influenced by their personal and social environment, geographical location, teachers, and theological affiliations. Furthermore, different exegetes within the same era may hold diverse views, leading to disputes over which sources should be deemed authoritative.
The focus of the dissertation lies in understanding the tensions within exegetes' desire to create interpretations that are both timeless and relevant to their specific time and place. Gender, particularly women's status and roles, is the lens through which the diachronic development of Sunni and Shia interpretations of four Qur'anic passages is studied. These passages delve into women's rights, the relationship between spouses, and marital disputes.
The author emphasizes the variation in interpretations, which defies simple categorization as "dogmatic," as certain aspects remain constant while others change over time, place, and between individual authors. Contextualizing these interpretations is essential, but many previous works fail to provide critical analysis, leading to a decontextualized understanding.
The dissertation argues that exegetes' personal opinions and societal norms are the primary factors influencing their interpretations, rather than solely relying on traditional sources like the Qur'an and hadiths. Despite broad agreement on certain points, the interpretations of these verses demonstrate a wide range of views. The study identifies a patriarchal perspective prevalent among pre-modern exegetes, which, while it may appear to contradict modern sensibilities, is distinct from outright misogyny.
The dissertation explores the complex and evolving methods of exegesis, the development of narratives, and how exegetes handle textual difficulties. While some rationales for interpretations are time-bound, others are subjective, reflecting the exegetes' own judgments. The findings suggest that the individual judgment of exegetes and contemporary concerns hold more significant influence than traditionally considered sources.
Overall, the work provides valuable insights into the intricate process of Qur'anic exegesis, shedding light on how interpretations of sacred texts evolved and adapted to changing contexts while striving to maintain continuity with past understandings.
Negotiating The Authoritative Sources, 2: Exegeses Of The Beginning Of Q4:34
Verse 4:34 deals with the practical aspects of the relationship between men and women, and various interpretations of this verse aim to influence the behaviors within households. These interpretations, however, do not serve as historical references as they rarely comment on specific practices. Nevertheless, their focus on practical implications moves them away from purely intellectual discourse into more practical realms. Analyzing the content of these interpretations is valuable, as modern-day authors often attribute certain attitudes to the exegetes based on a few explanations of Q4:34. This chapter aims to contextualize and explain these interpretations, revealing that not all exegetes shared the same attitudes towards the status of men and women. While some broad outlines are common, significant differences exist in the details of their works.
In Chapter 3, previously explored the exegetes' methods and variations among them, demonstrated how exegetes selectively utilize authoritative sources, such as hadiths, reflecting their own cultural contexts. In this chapter, the writer delve further into the discussion of exegetical methods. For the earliest exegeses, He focus on the use of the asbab al-nuzul (the Occasions of Revelation) to explain the verse. For later exegeses post-dating al-Tabari, He emphasize the intricate relationship between the exegetes and their authoritative sources, particularly in the context of reconciling exegesis and law. It is evident that the legal opinions of the exegetes' schools do not always surface in their exegeses, even when relevant to the discourse.
The Verse Verse 4:34 is typically interpreted in distinct but interconnected parts. In this dissertation, I analyze the bolded sections (with two key, controversial terms left untranslated):
"Men are qawwamun over women, with what God has given the one more than the other, and with what they spend of their wealth; so the good women are obedient, guarding for the absent what God has guarded, and if you fear nushuz, admonish them, and leave them in the beds, and strike them; and if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; Surely, God is exalted, and great."
This chapter primarily focuses on the first part of the verse, while the subsequent chapter addresses the meaning of nushuz and its consequences.
Therefore, it appears that the belief in the infallibility of prophets (isma) was firmly established during this period. The person quoted in this opinion, Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, was a student of the Companion Ibn Zubayr and was knowledgeable in hadith and Islamic law. As a Successor, his opinion carries weight, although other jurists disagree with his extreme view that only killing the wife warrants legal retaliation. So far, previous interpretations have primarily focused on the rights associated with marriage mentioned in this verse. However, Hūd b. Muhakkam introduces another legal aspect, which is men's superiority in witnessing and inheritance. He supports his interpretation with different sources, highlighting men's authority over women's discipline and their role in providing financial support. Additionally, he quotes a hadith emphasizing the perceived wretchedness of a woman without a husband, even if she is wealthy. This implies that women are considered spiritually and morally impoverished without male guidance. Furthermore, Hūd explains the permissible physical punishment that men can inflict and defines what constitutes a good woman. Different jurists hold varying opinions on the extent to which men can physically discipline their wives, with some allowing only minor punishment and others allowing more severe measures. Some early interpreters define obedient women as those who are obedient solely to their husbands, while others argue that obedience should be to both God and husbands. These interpretations reflect the importance placed on women's obedience in marital relationships. The early interpretations of Qur'an 4:34 demonstrate diverse approaches, drawing on hadiths, legal opinions, and other Quranic verses. These sources shape the exegetes' perspectives, which, in turn, influence their interpretations.
In this period, exegeses of Q4:34 undergo several changes. The discussions focus on men's responsibility to teach women and their religious superiority. Additionally, some exegetes argue that men's authority over women should not be unlimited, and they should behave properly to deserve such authority. A notable development occurs among Mālikī scholars, where it is stated that if a man fails to maintain his wife financially, he is no longer a qawwām over her, and she has the right to divorce him. This is one of the first instances where a clear differentiation between schools of thought regarding Q4:34 is observed.
The interpretations of this period exemplify the way exegetes navigate between their authoritative sources, personal opinions, and societal norms. Some exegetes even question whether the verse applies to all men and women. However, the Mālikī position primarily revolves around the legal aspect of maintenance, while their description of men's duties towards women and their role as qawwām remains relatively consistent with other schools of thought. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that only one Mālikī source explicitly states the legal ruling, whereas earlier Mālikīs and other scholars often omit such specifics, making them appear similar to exegetes from different schools.
In summary, this period brings forward various interpretations, shedding light on men's responsibilities towards women, their religious superiority, and limitations on their authority. The Mālikī perspective, in particular, stands out due to its clear articulation of the link between financial support and authority in a marriage.
During this period of new exegeses, some scholars introduced various caveats and tempering explanations regarding men's rights over women. Ibn al-Jawz┆ suggested that not all men are automatically in authority over all women, proposing that men can be qawwamun (protectors) only when they exhibit certain positive behaviors and qualities. This idea challenged the traditional notion that all men have inherent authority over all women solely based on their gender.
Abū Hayyan further refined this perspective, stating that men's authority over women applies to the entire gender as a collective rather than individuals. He argued that true "men" should possess specific attributes such as discretion, trustworthiness, and esteem, rather than merely physical characteristics like beards. In his view, individuals without these qualities cannot claim authority over women.
Some scholars, like al-Baydawi, emphasized men's religious superiority and their ability to perform religious duties. They argued that men's strength and capacity for pious acts justified their role as leaders in religious matters, such as prophecy, imamate, and governance.
While these new exegeses introduced a level of nuance and tempering to men's authority over women, it is essential to note that they did not fundamentally challenge the prevailing patriarchal structure. Men's religious superiority and inherent governance over women were still upheld by most scholars during this period. The changes primarily revolved around refining the qualifications for being a "man" in the context of exercising authority over women.
The passage discusses various interpretations of Qur'anic verse Q4:34, which deals with the issue of male authority over women. The verse has been widely cited in different ways by scholars throughout history. Some of the key points discussed in the passage include:
- The most commonly cited explanations for the verse are the story involving Hab┆ba bt. Zayd and the view that men are more rational than women. These elements explain why men have the right to discipline their wives, and the reason behind it.
- Many exegetes emphasize that "good women" should be obedient to their husbands rather than solely to God. Men's payment of dowry and maintenance are also widely cited as reasons for their superiority over women.
- There are some disagreements among scholars regarding the extent of men's authority over women. Some suggest that men should be kind and considerate, while others do not impose any limitations on their power.
- One notable development in interpretation is the questioning of the plain sense of the Qur'anic phrase "men are qawwamūn over women" and the hadith about women's deficiency in rationality and religion. Some scholars challenge these ideas by redefining "men" and asserting that some women can surpass men in rationality and religious performance.
Overall, the passage highlights the complexities and variations in the interpretations of Q4:34 and how different scholars negotiate between the authoritative sources and their own understandings.
"Including the citation of the hadith in which women inquire about men's preference in inheritance and are reassured that men have to provide them with maintenance, and a straightforward explanation that men's preferred status in inheritance is in exchange for the maintenance of wives, each of these explanations was cited four times, or in 12.5% of post-Wahid exegeses. Other explanations of this nature were that men are not absolutely preferred over women, that men's preference is not justified by dominance and subjugation, and that the verse does not refer to all individuals with male physical characteristics, but rather to those who behave in a masculine manner. These interpretations represent an important trend, but they are absent from the majority of the new interpretations cited in this period. Most of the new exegeses in this era heavily focus on men's responsibilities and the distinctions between their religious obligations and those of women. Often, the boundaries between men's duties and their religious obligations are blurred because men's responsibilities towards women hold religious significance. The most popular new exegesis from this period, which gained popularity in later ages, was that men command right and forbid wrong in relation to women, similar to how a governor guides the people. Out of the 32 exegetes in this study who passed away after al-Wahid, 8 (25%) cite this rationale, while an equal number cite men's right to assume greater or lesser imamate. Slightly fewer (6, or 19%) cite men's right to call for prayer, and 5 (15%) cite men's responsibility to educate women about religion. Other related interpretations, citing either men's responsibility for women or their religious preference (or a combination of both), included men's guardianship of women, safeguarding women's interests, men's responsibility for women, their duty to protect women, to command right and forbid wrong (for the general population, not just their wives), to keep women indoors, and to provide them with good companionship. Other new interpretations cited during this period that related to men's rights were their right to call for prayer and go to the mosque, as well as their ability to undertake pious acts and rituals due to their strength. In summary, religious themes and the theme of men's responsibility for women prevail in the new interpretations of this period. There were other new elements introduced into the exegeses at this time, including certain men's rights such as lineage passing through the male line (cited 5 times, or in 15% of exegeses after al-Wahid), men's right to divorce, and men's possession of women. Two new physical explanations were put forward: that men have beards and that they are more elegant than women. Several exegetes listed acquired skills or attributes as aspects of men's superiority over women, including men being learned ('ulama'), most men being able to write, men being able to ride horses, practice archery, and wear turbans. The texts from this period highlight the complex relationship between custom, exegesis, and law. Many elements listed as men's rights or superiority are rooted in custom. For example, women are capable of riding horses and writing, but customarily they did not do so or were not highly skilled, leading to these aspects being considered part of men's superiority. Similarly, women are legally allowed to engage in trade, but it is listed as one of men's superiorities over women. Hence, custom influences interpretation, while interpretation also seeks to influence custom. The exegetes' desire to impact customary practice is evident in their admonitions for men to treat women well. By emphasizing the importance of treating women kindly and taking care of them, exegetes aim to influence daily practices. In the period after Ibn Kathir, the exegeses become longer and more detailed but offer limited new explanations for this verse. Noteworthy developments during this period include the citation of several hadiths that had not been previously mentioned, and the differentiation of Imam sources from Sunni sources. An interesting development is an author of a marginal commentary suggesting that some exceptional women are not lacking in rationality. In Sunni commentaries, new hadiths are cited, including interpretations by early exegetes, hadiths mentioned in other works, and unique hadiths exclusive to those sources. While there are variations among the interpretations, overall there is a convergence of agreement on the verse's meaning and intent."