Ancient civilizations of the world present a fascinating case study of history and a reminder of insignificant human existence is on larger timescales. Only a few artifacts remain of their once flourishing culture. Based on these remains, archaeologists have deciphered much of their daily lives and the events that affected them but much still remain shrouded in the sands of time. In this paper, the two monoliths of ancient civilizations, the Ancient Egypt civilization and the Indus Valley civilization will be compared and contrasted.
Discovery and Geography
The Indus Valley civilization takes the name of the chief river on the banks of which the largest settlements of this civilization were situated, Indus. It covered the Eastern region of modern day Pakistan and North Western India. It was discovered by British archaeologists who were prospecting the region for laying down railroad tracks.
The Ancient Egypt civilization on the other hand developed around the lifeline of Egypt, river Nile. Unlike the related people of Indus Valley, the Nile Valley civilizations were distinct racial stocks spread over the regions from Ethiopia to the mouth of the Mediterranean sea. The chief civilization among them was Ancient Egypt which was situated in the lower reaches of the Nile river. It was also discovered by British archaeologists.
Government
The Indus Valley civilization has had conflicting dates provided by carbon dating technologies. The consensus on an acceptable range has been reached on the years 2900 BC to 1800 BC. The two largest cities of this civilization were Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. Since the script of the Indus Valley civilization has not yet been deciphered, much of their history has been derived using other sources like architecture and and their remains.
The Indus Valley civilization is understood to be a single hierarchal polity governed by a guild of merchants who issued seals. These deals were made of steatite and came in various shapes and denoted different denominations. These deals served as currency in the region and have also been located as far as Iran indicating that there existed a flourishing trade with the Mesopotamian civilization. While the quantum of trade is unknown as of yet, it is understood that the Indus Valley people traded their cotton and jewelry with the Mesopotamians for perfumes and silk.
Ancient Egypt on the other hand was an older civilization but persisted till much longer. It was a civilization with a pharaoh at the apex followed by important officials and the common people below. Both civilizations have evidence of slavery existing in their institutions. While the slaves of the Indus Valley were people living in the outskirts of the city and belonged to a different racial stock, the slaves of ancient Egypt were prisoners of war. The ancient Egyptians also developed a form of exchange which was mostly a barter system.
While the Indus Valley was largely a republican form of government, the Egyptians were a monarchy. The seat of the pharaoh was justified on the basis of religious texts and considered to be a representative of God.
While the script of the Indus Valley could not be deciphered, the script of the Egyptians has been cracked. It tells us the entire history of the people of the Nile from the very ancient predynastic period to that of the newer kingdoms.
Military
The cities of the Indus Valley were built in elevated platforms and bordered by fortified walls. Even within these walls, the cities were divided into a left upper region and a right lower region. It indicates that the elites lived in the left portions that had larger houses and bigger granaries. No sharp war tools have been found in the Indus Valley region which indicates that offensive war was not a part of their code. The presence of defensive structures indicate that the people at least had experience in resisting incoming armies. It is speculated that in times of war, the people filled in as soldiers and defended their city. The absence of military insignias and army barracks in any of the city connote the lack of any hierarchical military structures.
By contrast, the ancient Egyptians were a highly active offensive military force that undertook campaigns to conquer more lands and get more slaves. Their campaigns gave mankind its first recorded peace treaty which they concluded with the Hittites. The standing army is the Egyptians was a formidable force and took orders from their commander who drew his authority by the consent of the pharaoh. The military was also charged with the duty to protect the trading caravans for which, large barracks and forts were built at regular intervals within the empire.
The typical weapons of the people of the Nile were, arrows with bows, spears and shields. They also learnt the art of chariot making from the Hyskos and the use of the Khopesh from the Asian invaders. Although, most soldiers came from the population itself, the Egyptians also hired professional mercenaries from neighbouring areas.
Culture
The Indus Valley people were the only ancient civilization to have an urban life. The cities were run by guilds of merchants who set the law of the land. Cities were planned and consisted of wide roads bisecting each other at right angles for connection with arterial roads. The doors of the houses were placed at the back and connected to the road. Burnt bricks were used for building houses and plastered with limestone. Drains were built connecting each house to sewage lines and covered with gypsum for aesthetic purposes. The central courtyard of the houses contained fire pits for ceremonial purposes. The granaries were located on the eastern side and housed the slaves apart from grains.
The men and the women kept long hair and braided them with beads made by the people themselves. They also amused themselves with a dice game and partook intoxicating drinks. Pottery was also in vogue with the discovery of toy clay carts and a bust of a bearded man. The discovery of a Bronze statue of a dancing girl indicates that the people were well versed with the handling of metals and applied metallurgy.
While horses are considered to be alien to the people, bones of horses have been discovered in Dholavira indicating a contradiction. The seals had depictions of oxen, bullocks and unicorns. The seals, in the absence of a deciphered script are the richest source of their information.
The script of the people of bystrophedon which means that it was written right to left on one line and left to right on the next. The script has depictions of shapes as well as figures which might indicate the presence of a numeral system.
The people of the civilization ate vegetarian as well as non vegetarian dishes. Crops grown by them included rice, wheat and barley. The presence of a large bath in Mohenjo Daro points towards a ceremonial function relating to baths but that is not yet fully deciphered.
The Egyptians on the other hand were a rural monarchy. The people lived in villages and grew crops as well as undertook rural jobs like animal husbandry and cattle breeding. The pharaoh lived in the largest building and was a hereditary ruler. The elites lived in areas adjoining the pharaoh and acted as his advisors and courtiers. The pharaoh dictated the law of the land as the representative of God and the people followed these laws. The pharaoh was advised by the priests who had advanced knowledge of the religious texts. The military commander also stayed near the pharaoh and took orders from him regarding the conduct of war and peace. Other officials included ministers of various subjects of governance like trade, and internal security.
The common people lived hard lives and found less time for games and pleasure. The elites however indulged in playing and listening to flutes and harps. The common people tilled the land and earned off of it. The houses were built of bricks made of mud to keep the insides cool. The roof of the kitchens were kept open for ventilation and the floors were covered with reeds. The Egyptians are credited with the invention of bathing soap which was composed of chalk and animal fat. The clothes worn by the people was colored white using bleach and adorned with semi precious gems. The family setup was patriarchal with the fathers providing the income and the mothers rearing the children. All boys were circumcised at birth and their heads were shaved on reaching twelve years of age. In their free time, the common people played board games known as Senet and mehin. The wealthy on the other hand indulged in boating and hunting.
The diet of the ancient Egyptians was comprised of bread which was baked in the family ovens. The common vegetables were onions and garlic while the preferred fruits were figs and dates. Non vegetarian cuisine included fish, meat and chicken which are either grilled on a flame or cooked in stew.
Contrary to the people of the Indus Valley, the ancient Egyptians built large structures and huge temples which have become a hallmark of their culture. The tombs of the pharaohs were massive structures known as pyramids which were built using slave labor. The towering ziggurats and the mystifying sphinxes have become massive tourist attractions and a testament of their architectural skills. The temples dedicated to their deities, like that of the sun god, Ra, were exquisitely built and rebuilt over the ages signifying the piety of the people of the Nile river.
Religious Beliefs
The Indus Valley people were primitive beings and had polytheistic faith. They worshipped fire, wind and lightning apart from their regular idols. Female worship was also on vogue as the pantheon of their gods included a healthy mix of male and female figures. The prominence of a humped bull in a lot of their seals have led people to speculate that it was a religious figure, a proto-Shiva.
Prayers were offered along with ablutions into the fire pits placed in the central courtyard of all houses. The priestly class conducted these prayers in the presence of the head of the house who was always the eldest male member. Since their script is undeciphered, the distinction between their religious texts and their literary texts cannot be made. The priestly class is supposed to have occupied the second strata in the social hierarchy below the merchant guilds.
The ancient Egyptians followed a complex religious life by comparison dominated by the priestly classes. The pharaoh ruled according to the divine rights of the king which was proclaimed by the priests. The ancient Egyptians also believed in the afterlife and the divine beings which was derived from their religious scripture. The book of the dead was written to guide the dead in their endeavors in the afterlife.
The Egyptians were also polytheistic but their gods were considered to be possessors of supernatural powers based on which, they intervened in Earthly affairs. Like the Indus Valley, the importance of the gods varied with the passage of time indicating the changing faiths and beliefs of people. Each God had their temples which were run by the priestly class on the lands owned by the pharaoh. The central shrine was kept away from the sight of the common people who were allowed to glimpse it only on certain holy days. The use of oracles was also devised by the Egyptians after the separation of the priestly role of the pharaoh. Since the priestly class was not anointed as the representatives of God, they used these oracles to listen to the word of God.
Death and Burial
The Indus Valley people buried their dead, in fact, the word Mohenjo Daro translates to mound of the dead. The people marked the graves with small tablets which used to be marked as headstones. Whether the people believed in the afterlife is up for speculation but if we were to gauge using the Hindu culture as a starting point, then these people believed in the indestructibility of the soul. Whatever burial spots have been unearthed, they indicate that the Indus Valley people did not believe in the concept of the afterlife.
The ancient Egyptians had a much ritualized burial procedure for their dead. The burial of their pharaoh called for the embalming of the body and laid down in pyramids. The belief of the people in the afterlife made the people bury small items like plates, toys and personal belongings to assist the dead in their journey to the afterlife. After the entire process was completed, the entrance to the pyramid was sealed so that no one could enter them on a later date and disturb the dead. It was only in 1921 that for the first time a pyramid was opened. It was the pyramid of king Tutankhamen, who was the boy king of Egypt. His uncle pharaoh Akhenaten was one of the most fearsome rulers of Egypt. Akhenaten’s wife Nefertiti was considered to be the most beautiful woman in the entire world. Tutankhamen’s tomb brought renewed interest of the Western world towards the culture of ancient Egypt and a large crowd of archaeologists descended in Cairo to find more pyramids and make a name and fortune for themselves.
The burial of the common people was a much simpler affair with the dead bodies being buried with a simple headstone marking the burial spot. There were no pyramids built for the common people on their death. The reason behind such grand burials for the pharaohs lie in his position as the representative of God in earth.
Conclusion
Both these civilizations are among the most ancient civilizations of the world. While the prehistoric man lived in caves and in small groups, these were complete civilizations with flourishing trade within their borders and with the outside world. The people made contributions towards the development of the settlement and undertook specialized skills that built upon the interdependence of the people.
While the Indus Valley civilization was an urban structure, it was also much more peaceful and thriving, the ancient Egyptian culture was rural but more colorful by comparison. The Egyptians built massive structures and undertook long offensive campaigns to etch their names in the history of time. Both cultures were polytheistic and dominated by priests but the Indus Valley civilization was more republican while the Nile river civilization was a monarchy. In sum, as ancient civilizations, both were remarkably similar despite their great distances and yet there were differences that indicate the divergence of their cultural beliefs.