A U.S. Navy "Freedom of Navigation Operation," conducted last week within India's maritime Exclusive Economic Zone, or EEZ, was met with protests from the Indian Ministry of External Affairs, as well as members of the Indian defense and political establishments.
The U.S. Navy has conducted Freedom of Navigation Operations, or FONOPs, since the height of the Cold War in the 1960s as a means of challenging other coastal states' claims to maritime jurisdiction that it judges as excessive, in order to prevent those claims from achieving acceptance under customary international law. These operations were formalized during the Carter administration in 1979 under the rubric of the U.S. Freedom of Navigation Program, which combines operational assertions with diplomatic protests and consultations.
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