Food

Foods from plant sources
Food is any substance [1] consumed to provide nutritional
support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal
origin, and contains essential nutrients , such as
carbohydrates , fats, proteins , vitamins , or minerals . The
substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by
the organism's cells to provide energy , maintain life, or
stimulate growth.
Historically, humans secured food through two methods:
hunting and gathering and agriculture . Today, the
majority of the food energy required by the ever
increasing population of the world is supplied by the food
industry .
Food safety and food security are monitored by agencies
like the International Association for Food Protection,
World Resources Institute , World Food Programme , Food
and Agriculture Organization , and International Food
Information Council . They address issues such as
sustainability, biological diversity , climate change ,
nutritional economics , population growth , water supply ,
and access to food .
The right to food is a human right derived from the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (ICESCR), recognizing the "right to an adequate
standard of living , including adequate food", as well as
the "fundamental right to be free from hunger ".
Food sources
Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained
directly from plants; but even animals that are used as
food sources are raised by feeding them food derived
from plants. Cereal grain is a staple food that provides
more food energy worldwide than any other type of
crop. [2] Corn (maize) , wheat , and rice – in all of their
varieties – account for 87% of all grain production
worldwide. [3][4][5] Most of the grain that is produced
worldwide is fed to livestock.
Some foods not from animal or plant sources include
various edible fungi , especially mushrooms . Fungi and
ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented
and pickled foods like leavened bread , alcoholic drinks,
cheese , pickles , kombucha , and yogurt . Another example
is blue-green algae such as Spirulina . [6] Inorganic
substances such as salt , baking soda and cream of tartar
are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient.
Plants
See also: Herb and spice
Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and
around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food. Many
of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. [7]
Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals,
including humans, because they contain the nutrients
necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many
healthful fats, such as omega fats. In fact, the majority of
food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods.
Edible seeds include cereals (corn, wheat , rice , et cetera ),
legumes (beans , peas , lentils , et cetera), and nuts .
Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils -
sunflower, flaxseed , rapeseed (including canola oil ),
sesame, et cetera . [8]
Seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in
moderation, are considered a health food , although not all
seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a
lemon, pose a choking hazard, while seeds from cherries
and apples contain cyanide which could be poisonous
only if consumed in large volumes. [9]
Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the
seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved
such that the fruits of the former are an attractive food
source to the latter, because animals that eat the fruits
may excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits,
therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most
cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes ,
pumpkins , and eggplants , are eaten as vegetables. [10]
(For more information, see list of fruits .)
Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is
commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables
( potatoes and carrots ), bulbs (onion family), leaf
vegetables ( spinach and lettuce ), stem vegetables
( bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence
vegetables ( globe artichokes and broccoli and other
vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower ). [11]
Animals
Main articles: Animal source foods and Food chain
Various raw meats
Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by
the products they produce. Meat is an example of a
direct product taken from an animal, which comes from
muscle systems or from organs .
Food products produced by animals include milk
produced by mammary glands , which in many cultures is
drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter,
etc.). In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs , which
are often eaten, and bees produce honey , a reduced
nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in
many cultures. Some cultures consume blood ,
sometimes in the form of blood sausage , as a thickener
for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food
scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged
hare . [12]
Some cultures and people do not consume meat or
animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical,
or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food
from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not
consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from
an animal source.
Production
A tractor pulling a chaser bin
Main articles: Agriculture , Food industry , and Genetically
modified food
Most food has always been obtained through agriculture .
With increasing concern over both the methods and
products of modern industrial agriculture , there has been
a growing trend toward sustainable agricultural practices.
This approach, partly fueled by consumer demand,
encourages biodiversity , local self-reliance and organic
farming methods. [13] Major influences on food
production include international organizations (e.g. the
World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural
Policy ), national government policy (or law), and war. [14]
In popular culture, the mass production of food,
specifically meats such as chicken and beef , has come
under fire from various documentaries , most recently
Food, Inc , documenting the mass slaughter and poor
treatment of animals, often for easier revenues from
large corporations . Along with a current trend towards
environmentalism , people in Western culture have had an
increasing trend towards the use of herbal supplements ,
foods for a specific group of people (such as dieters,
women, or athletes), functional foods (fortified foods,
such as omega-3 eggs), and a more ethnically diverse
diet. [15]
Several organisations have begun calling for a new kind
of agriculture in which agroecosystems provide food but
also support vital ecosystem services so that soil fertility
and biodiversity are maintained rather than
compromised. According to the International Water
Management Institute and UNEP, well-managed
agroecosystems not only provide food, fiber and animal
products, they also provide services such as flood
mitigation , groundwater recharge , erosion control and
habitats for plants, birds, fish and other animals. [16]
Taste perception
Main article: Taste
Animals, specifically humans, have five different types of
tastes: sweet , sour, salty, bitter , and umami . As animals
have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy
( sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to eat while
others, such as bitter, are not enjoyable. [17] Water, while
important for survival, has no taste. [18] Fats, on the
other hand, especially saturated fats, are thicker and rich
and are thus considered more enjoyable to eat.
Sweet
Structure of sucrose
Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste, sweetness
is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such
as glucose or fructose , or disaccharides such as sucrose ,
a molecule combining glucose and fructose. [19] Complex
carbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have the
sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are
used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation
of sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar
include raw sugar , which is known for its amber color, as
it is unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy and
survival, the taste of sugar is pleasant.
The stevia plant contains a compound known as steviol
which, when extracted, has 300 times the sweetness of
sugar while having minimal impact on blood sugar. [20]
Sour
Sourness is caused by the taste of acids , such as vinegar
in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus,
specifically lemons , limes , and to a lesser degree
oranges . Sour is evolutionarily significant as it is a sign
for a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria. [21]
Many foods, however, are slightly acidic, and help
stimulate the taste buds and enhance flavor.
Salty
Salt mounds in Bolivia
Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium
and potassium . It is found in almost every food in low to
moderate proportions to enhance flavor, although to eat
pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There are
many different types of salt, with each having a different
degree of saltiness, including sea salt , fleur de sel ,
kosher salt , mined salt, and grey salt. Other than
enhancing flavor, its significance is that the body needs
and maintains a delicate electrolyte balance, which is the
kidney 's function. Salt may be iodized, meaning iodine
has been added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes
thyroid function. Some canned foods, notably soups or
packaged broths , tend to be high in salt as a means of
preserving the food longer. Historically salt has long been
used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water
excretion. Similarly, dried foods also promote food
safety. [22]
Bitter
Bitterness is a sensation often considered unpleasant
characterized by having a sharp, pungent taste.
Unsweetened dark chocolate , caffeine , lemon rind, and
some types of fruit are known to be bitter.
Umami
Umami , the Japanese word for delicious, is the least
known in Western popular culture but has a long tradition
in Asian cuisine. Umami is the taste of glutamates,
especially monosodium glutamate (MSG). [19] It is
characterized as savory, meaty, and rich in flavor. [23]
Salmon and mushrooms are foods high in umami. [24]
Cuisine
Main articles: Cuisine , Regional cuisine , and Global cuisines
Typical Balinese cuisine in Indonesia
Many scholars claim that the rhetorical function of food
is to represent the culture of a country, and that it can be
used as a form of communication. According to Goode,
Curtis and Theophano, food "is the last aspect of an
ethnic culture to be lost". [25]
Many cultures have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set
of cooking traditions using various spices or a
combination of flavors unique to that culture, which
evolves over time. Other differences include preferences
(hot or cold, spicy, etc.) and practices, the study of which
is known as gastronomy . Many cultures have diversified
their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods,
and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food
trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by
way of food, not just by consumption.
Some popular types of ethnic foods include Italian,
French , Japanese , Chinese , American, Cajun, Thai ,
African cuisine ,Indian and Nepalese cuisine. Various
cultures throughout the world study the dietary analysis
of food habits . While evolutionarily speaking, as opposed
to culturally, humans are omnivores , religion and social
constructs such as morality, activism , or
environmentalism will often affect which foods they will
consume. Food is eaten and typically enjoyed through the
sense of taste , the perception of flavor from eating and
drinking. Certain tastes are more enjoyable than others,
for evolutionary purposes.
Presentation
A French basil salmon terrine , with eye-
appealing garnishes
Main article: Food presentation
Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food
presentations can encourage people to consume foods. A
common saying is that people "eat with their eyes". Food
presented in a clean and appetizing way will encourage a
good flavor, even if unsatisfactory. [26][27]
Contrast in texture
Texture plays a crucial role in the enjoyment of eating
foods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchy
in an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal of
eating it. Common examples include adding granola to
yogurt , adding croutons to a salad or soup , and toasting
bread to enhance its crunchiness for a smooth topping,
such as jam or butter. [28]
Contrast in taste
Another universal phenomenon regarding food is the
appeal of contrast in taste and presentation. For example,
such opposite flavors as sweetness and saltiness tend to
go well together, as in kettle corn and nuts .
Food preparation
Main article: Outline of food preparation
While many foods can be eaten raw, many also undergo
some form of preparation for reasons of safety,
palatability , texture , or flavor . At the simplest level this
may involve washing, cutting, trimming, or adding other
foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve
mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking,
fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home,
most food preparation takes place in a kitchen . Some
preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic
appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food;
others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is
made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a
specific time and place. [29]
A refrigerator helps to keep foods fresh.
Animal preparation
The preparation of animal-based food usually involves
slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning, and
rendering . In developed countries, this is usually done
outside the home in slaughterhouses , which are used to
process animals en masse for meat production. Many
countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For
example, the United States has established the Humane
Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be
stunned before killing. This act, like those in many
countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious
law, such as kosher , shechita , and dhabīḥah halal. Strict
interpretations of kashrut require the animal to be fully
aware when its carotid artery is cut. [30]
On the local level, a butcher may commonly break down
larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts, and
pre-wrap them for commercial sale or wrap them to order
in butcher paper. In addition, fish and seafood may be
fabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger. However
fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and
quick-frozen for preservation of quality. [31]
Cooking
Cooking with a wok in China
Main article: Cooking
The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of
methods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to
improve the flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking
technique, known as culinary art , generally requires the
selection, measurement, and combining of ingredients in
an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired
result. Constraints on success include the variability of
ingredients, ambient conditions, tools , and the skill of the
individual cook. [32] The diversity of cooking worldwide is
a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic,
agricultural, economic, cultural, and religious
considerations that affect it. [33]
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually,
though not always, chemically changes the molecules,
thus changing its flavor, texture , appearance, and
nutritional properties. [34] Cooking certain proteins, such
as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein,
causing it to firm. There is archaeological evidence of
roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating
from 420,000 years ago. [35] Boiling as a means of
cooking requires a container, and has been practiced at
least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction
of pottery. [36]
Cooking equipment
A stainless steel frying pan
A traditional asado (barbecue)
Main article: Cookware and bakeware
There are many different types of equipment used for
cooking.
Ovens are mostly hollow devices that get very hot (up to
500 °F (260 °C)) and are used for baking or roasting and
offer a dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will
use different types of ovens. For example, Indian culture
uses a tandoor oven, which is a cylindrical clay oven
which operates at a single high temperature. [37] Western
kitchens use variable temperature convection ovens,
conventional ovens, toaster ovens, or non-radiant heat
ovens like the microwave oven . Classic Italian cuisine
includes the use of a brick oven containing burning wood.
Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired, gas , electric, or oil-
fired. [38]
Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry
the same variations of fuel types as the ovens mentioned
above. Cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top
of the heat source, such as a sauté pan, sauce pot, frying
pan, or pressure cooker . These pieces of equipment can
use either a moist or dry cooking method and include
methods such as steaming , simmering , boiling , and
poaching for moist methods, while the dry methods
include sautéing , pan frying, and deep-frying . [39]
In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A grill
operates with a radiant heat source from below, usually
covered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. An
open pit barbecue in the American south is one example
along with the American style outdoor grill fueled by
wood, liquid propane, or charcoal along with soaked
wood chips for smoking. [40] A Mexican style of
barbecue is called barbacoa , which involves the cooking
of meats such as whole sheep over an open fire. In
Argentina , an asado (Spanish for "grilled") is prepared on
a grill held over an open pit or fire made upon the ground,
on which a whole animal or smaller cuts are grilled. [41]
Raw food preparation
Many types of fish ready to be eaten,
including salmon and tuna
Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in a
raw state . Salads consisting of raw vegetables or fruits
are common in many cuisines. Sashimi in Japanese
cuisine consists of raw sliced fish or other meat, and
sushi often incorporates raw fish or seafood. Steak
tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or
ground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various
ingredients and served with baguettes , brioche , or
frites . [42] In Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thinly sliced
raw beef , drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive
oil. [43] The health food movement known as raw foodism
promotes a mostly vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables,
and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing,
food dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of
preparation that do not heat the food above 118 °F
(47.8 °C). [44] An example of a raw meat dish is ceviche ,
a Latin American dish made with raw meat that is
"cooked" from the highly acidic citric juice from lemons
and limes along with other aromatics such as garlic.
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