Meanwhile Austen's journey to publication can also be seen as a lesson in resilience, paved with rejection and false starts. After starting to write at around the age of 12, she began doing it seriously in her 20s but did not get published until her mid 30s. When she was aged 22, in 1797, her father sent off an early draft of Pride and Prejudice to the London publisher Cadell & Davies, which was rejected curtly by return of post, while six years later, another novel named Susan was accepted for £10 by Crosby and Co but never published by the London firm. "The disappointment of that must have been absolutely crippling," says Kelly. "It's clearly something she [had] been dreaming about for years and years." In 1809, Austen wrote an aggrieved letter to Crosby and Co – "not a template of what to write to your publishers", according to Kelly – which proved ineffectual. Then in 1816, just a year before she died, she finally bought the manuscript back – leading to it being published posthumously as Northanger Abbey (accompanied by a disgruntled 'Advertisement by the Authoress' lamenting the earlier non-publication). "It took a lot of grit to carry on especially when her brothers wanted her to look after their motherless boys," Kelly says.
Her heroines' growth
Austen's heroines are similarly often required to persevere, though more stoically, suffering in silence after believing their chance of happiness has been lost forever. The moment when Elinor Dashwood steels herself before seeing her love Edward Ferrars, wrongly believing he has married another – "I will be calm, I will be mistress of myself" – is both heartbreaking and inspiring; a strength of character rendered particularly powerfully by Emma Thompson in her performance in the 1995 Ang Lee film adaptation that she also scripted. In Persuasion, protagonist Anne Elliot is confronted with Captain Wentworth who she loved and rejected nine years ago, and apparently fails to recognise her because she is so changed ("so altered that he should not have known her again"); she is mortified, as she still loves him, though she tries to hide all display of emotion. Some claim this is Austen's most romantic novel, partly because of how Anne learns to reveal her real feelings so that Wentworth can "know" her truly, leading to one of the most moving literary denouements in which he tells her: "You pierce my soul. I am half agony, half hope".
"If you look at every single one of Jane Austen's heroines, they get to some stage of the story where they think they're not going to get the person they want, " says Mullan. "In several of them, the central character becomes convinced that the man she loves is going to marry someone else even if the reader knows better. In that simple sense, these are stories of not just getting what you want but accepting that happy endings might not be available to you. So self-pity is not an option."
Which brings us on to the emotional growth of Austen's characters – another facet of them that can prove inspiring to us at a time of uncertainty when we are perhaps re-evaluating what really matters. Psychologists such as Angela Duckworth, author of Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance, talk of a "growth mindset" – a way of thinking founded on the principle that life should be lived as a constant process of adapting to challenges and accepting and learning from your mistakes. It's a mindset that many of her heroines acquire: as well as dealing with insecurity over money and status, they often contend with a sense of shame over their past actions – before they learn from it and are changed by experience.
Spoiled, pretty Emma, for example, is so bored and cosseted in her small village that she takes on people as 'projects' and mocks characters like the kind and relatively impoverished Miss Bates, before learning the error of her ways. "A key moment in most of the novels is the moment when the heroine realises she has been wrong about another character," says Dr Gillian Dow, associate professor in English at the University of Southampton. "We feel Emma's shame after mocking Miss Bates on Box Hill, because we live the event via Emma's thoughts, and Austen shows it to us; it's key to understanding how Austen develops her characters. Similarly the moment when Elizabeth Bennet realises she has been wrong about Wickham, and therefore wrong about Darcy, is a pivotal moment in her personal development: she 'grew absolutely ashamed of herself', [Austen writes], and we feel ashamed along with her."
Arguably we feel their emotional transformation so painfully because of Austen's pioneering use of the authorial voice, which inspired writers such as Gustave Flaubert, Henry James and Franz Kafka. Her particular kind of narration allows us simultaneously to live in the mind of the characters but also share in the knowledge, as suggested by the narrator, that the characters' beliefs are often wrong. "She does this incredible thing where she invents ways of writing narrative so we can see characters and the errors they make but also live inside their thoughts," Mullan says. He believes, above and beyond the themes in her writing, that it is her revolutionary writing style which really resonates with modern readers. "Before [her], [novels had either been] first or third person and she perfected free, indirect style which combined the two… you read the novel through [the characters'] eyes so it's a really extraordinary technique which no one had really done before."
It's a style that allows for a particularly intimate reading experience, which author and Austen expert Dr Paula Byrne believes is one of the reasons many refer to the author simply as 'Jane'. "Sometimes I find it patronising but I think it's also because people do genuinely think of her as a friend. I find this psychologically interesting – all these brilliant things she's doing in a technical sense, make you think 'I feel really relaxed and comforted'."
Byrne is so interested in the comforting aspects of Austen that she is devoting a book to the subject. "I've been trying to unpick why do we return to her, why is she the comfort read and people say she's like crawling under a warm duvet on a cold night, there's something really comforting about her books but I'm really interested in unpicking what that means."
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In fact, Austen's writing is so strongly associated with providing solace that, as Byrne discovered, she was prescribed to World War One soldiers suffering from severe shell-shock or what we would now know as PTSD: in a letter titled The Mission of English Lit to the Times Literary Supplement from 1984, Martin Jarrett-Kerr wrote: "My old Oxford tutor, H F Brett-Smith, was exempt from military service; but was employed by hospitals to advise on reading matters for the war-wounded. His job was to rate novels and poetry for the 'fever chart'. For the severely shell-shocked he selected Jane Austen."
This wartime association is celebrated in Rudyard Kipling's 1924 short story The Janeites, about a group of soldiers who bond through their love of Austen, with the protagonist discovering her work whilst in Bath recovering from trench foot ("there's no one to touch Jane when you're in a tight spot.")
Byrne became fascinated by soldiers' reading of her whilst researching her book The Genius of Jane Austen; in the very thick of World War One, she learned how they would keep classic texts in their pockets while in the trenches, and discovered that Winnie the Pooh author AA Milne had bonded with fellow soldiers over his love of Austen during his time fighting. Fellow Austen fan Lance Corporal Grainger followed Milne out on to the front line just to check on the author after they had become friends over their shared interest in the books – a gesture described by Milne in his memoir as "the greatest tribute to Jane Austen that I have ever heard." Another notable figure who relied on her in times of war was the bedridden Winston Churchill in 1943, who was consoled during illness by having his daughter read Pride and Prejudice to him.
Back in the present day, meanwhile, Dow has been made alive to the therapeutic power of Austen through her teaching of a free online course Jane Austen: Myth and Reality on digital education platform Futurelearn. "In March we were joined by an ICU nurse from the USA, and many learners announced they were self-isolating, on furlough, recovering from illness, or seeking distraction. 'I shall miss my lockdown afternoons with Jane', wrote one participant at the end of the course," she says.
Each reader has their own particular reasons to find Austen a tonic, of course. Kelly, for her part, believes there is something especially soothing about the way Austen's novels tend to span a calendar year: in employing that timeline, they evoke the fact that "the sun will come back and life will improve", she says. Or as Lady Russell says in Persuasion: "Time will explain". Meanwhile, for Byrne, there is a restorative power in the very rhythm of Austen's sentences. "The way that she writes has a slowing down effect which encourages slow reading, you can't really read her quickly," she says.
Unfortunately, the sled is also carrying the body of Dutch, a fallen comrade of Jack's guides, who had promised to bury his body at a specific place in the Alaskan wilderness. As it careens down a snowy bank, Dutch's coffin bursts open and the dead man's body falls out. It transpires that he wasn't being laid to rest on his own – his arms are wrapped tightly around the body of his dead dog.
It's a simple, throwaway shot – but one that speaks volumes about the bond between human and canine that is the core subject of the Disney live-action feature, directed by Randal Kleiser (best known for Grease). Thirty years on from its original release, White Fang is as much of an intrepid classic of the one-man-and-his-dog sub-genre as the original novel. Sure, in the cold light of 2021 it might seems somewhat cheesy and earnest – and unlike London's book, it prioritises the perspective of the man over its titular dog to its detriment. But there's still something so reassuringly plucky and entertaining about seeing this live action wolf-dog in action alongside Hawke, before he shrugged off the studio jacket in favour of more independent fare.
It was certainly a career milestone for the actor, who credits the film for setting him on the path to success. "It was the single best experience of my acting life," Hawke maintained in 2015. "If I could teach an acting class now, I would have people work with half-breed wolves. I went out there for six weeks, where I had no job except to hang out with these half-breed wolves. I would walk them in the morning and feed them and get to know them, so that our interaction would be authentic.
"That's one of the reasons why I think people talk about the value of rehearsal," he added. "Simply being together with people qualifies as rehearsal. The more you spend time and understand each other's eccentricities, like with these animals."
The range of adaptations of White Fang produced
When it comes to this particular kind of buddy movie, Disney has certainly cornered the market. A quick search on its Disney+ streaming service brings up several films that were released before White Fang and also focus on the companionship of a man or boy and his mutt, including Old Yeller (1957), Greyfriars Bobby (1961), The Biscuit Eater (1972) and Turner & Hooch (1989). There have been multiple screen adaptations of London's 1903 novel Call of the Wild: last year, the studio released another starring Harrison Ford, while in December 2019 it served up a new and original addition to the sub-genre, Togo, starring Willem Dafoe. Meanwhile, other recent non-Disney human-dog/wolf adventures have included the 2018 releases Alpha (on Sony Pictures) and a French animated version of White Fang (on Netflix). The latter marks the 12th time London's book has been adapted into a film since 1925, with the range of versions produced by different countries in different languages a sure sign of the story's timeless and global appeal.
In the majority of these films, the canine protagonist has a strong connection to the wilderness, whether they be a wolf-dog mix, a dog embracing its wild heritage, a sled dog facing wild terrains or an actual wolf in the Ice Age. An innate connection is shown between animal and nature, which in turn often provides the foundation for the bond between dog and man.
That's not to say there haven't been one-woman-and-her-dog offerings over the years. Toto is the constant companion to Dorothy Gale in L Frank Baum's Oz novel series and its various film and musical adaptations, while the famous little orphan Annie also has a trusty canine sidekick called Sandy in Harold Gray's 1924 comic strip and her other incarnations. More adult studies of the bond between woman and dog have included the 2017 film Megan Leavey, about a Marine and her combat dog, and Sigrid Nunez's 2018 novel The Friend.
But nevertheless, women have been relatively marginalised in this type of story, which more frequently focuses on a bond that revolves around heroism and masculinity, as well as the expression of male vulnerability.
Stories of domestication
In the case of the 1991 White Fang film, the central relationship is between Jack, an amalgamation of several characters from the novel, and the eponymous wolf-dog, who take turns saving one another. White Fang prevents Jack from being attacked by a grizzly bear; Jack then rescues White Fang from being used by illegal dogfighters, and later, after being nursed back to health and tamed, the mutt repays the favour by protecting his master from being gunned down by the same criminals. This scene is echoed by a fight sequence in the more recent Call of the Wild adaptation in which Buck, a St Bernard–Scotch Collie mix, kills the attacker of his latest human companion Thornton (Ford) by pushing him into a burning cabin in the Yukon Valley. In fact, the original White Fang novel was written after the success of Call of the Wild in 1903 as a mirror to London's debut, which explored the return of the domesticated dog back to its wild nature.
"I have the idea for the next book I shall write... not a sequel to Call of the Wild. But a companion to [it]," London said in a letter to George P Brett. "I'm going to reverse the process. Instead of the devolution or decivilization of a dog, I'm going to give the evolution, the civilization of a dog – development of domesticity, faithfulness, love, morality, and all the amenities and virtues."
London looked at the brutality of nature and man through the eyes of his eponymous half-breed wolf, who is raised by his mother until they are taken in by an indigenous tribe and separated. Having to fend for himself much of the time, White Fang becomes harsh and solitary and then even more feral when he is sold to a dog fighter. It is only when a rich young man (in the book, called Weedon Scott) saves him from this life and gives him the warmth, love and patience to learn a tamer way of being that the wolf-dog finds peace and purpose by man's side.