II. 공적인 권역 및 사적인 권역The Public and the Private Realm
4.. 사람: 사회적인 어떤 동물 및 정치적인 어떤 동물Man: A Social or a Political Animal
행동은 사람의 배타적인 절대권이다. 어떤 짐승도 어떤 신도 행동의 역량은 없다. 오직 행동만이 타자들의 항상적인 현전 쪽위로 전반적으로 종속된다(92)Action alone is the exclusive prerogative of man; neither a beast nor a god is capable of it,원주1 and only action is entirely dependent upon the constant presence of others.
원주1. 호머의 신들은 오직 사람들과 관련해서만 행동한다... 먼저 시작한 것은 사람들이다...헤시오도스 역시... 어디에서도 신들의 영광스러운 행함을 노래하지 않는다, 그가 노래한 것은 나이든 사람들의 영광스러운 행함들이다(92)It seems quite striking that the Homeric gods act only with respect to men, ruling them from afar or interfering in their affairs. Conflicts and strife between the gods also seem to arise chiefly from their part in human affairs or their conflicting partiality with respect to mortals. What then appears is a story in which men and gods act together, but the scene is set by the mortals, even when the decision is arrived at in the assembly of gods on Olympus. I think such a "co-operation" is indicated in the Homeric erg' andron te them te(Odyssey i. 338): the bard sings the deeds of gods and men, not stories of the gods and stories of men. Similarly, Hesiod's Theogony deals not with the deeds of gods but with the genesis of the world(116); it therefore tells how things came into being through begetting and giving birth(constantly recurring). The singer, servant of the Muses, sings "the glorious deeds of men of old and the blessed gods"(97 ff.), but nowhere, as far as I can see, the glorious deeds of the gods.
행동과 존재 사이의 이러한 특별한 관계됨은 아리스토텔레스의 "준 폴리티콘(정치적인 동물)"을 "아니말 소살리스(사회적인 동물)"라고 한 세네카의 이른 옮김을 전적으로 떳떳하게끔 만든다. 이 옮김은 아퀴나스를 통한 표준적인 옮김인 "호모 에스트 나투랄리테르 폴리티쿠스, 이드 에스트 소시알리스(사람은 본성자연에 의해서 정치적이다 곧 사회적이다)"가 되었다... 라틴어 소시에타스(사회)는 특별한 어떤 목적을 위한 인민들 사이의 어떤 동맹을 가리킨다... 더나중에 "소시에타스 게네리스 후마니(사람-종류의 사회)"라는 개념이 "소셜(사회적)"이라는 용어가 근본기초적인 어떤 인간조건상태라는 일반적인 의미를 획득했다(92~ 93)This special relationship between action and being together seems fully to justify the early translation of Aristotle's zoon politikon by animal socialis, already found in Seneca, which then became the standard translation through Thomas Aquinas: homo est naturaliter politicus, id est, socialis("man is by nature political, that is, social"). More than any elaborate theory, this unconscious substitution of the social for the political betrays the extent to which the original Greek understanding of politics had been lost. For this, it is significant but not decisive that the word "social" is Roman in origin and has no equivalent in Greek language or thought. Yet the Latin usage of the word societas also originally had a clear, though limited, political meaning; it indicated an alliance between people for a specific purpose, as when men organize in order to rule others or to commit a crime.원주3 It is only with the later concept of a societas generis humani, a "society of man-kind,"원주4 that the term "social" begins to acquire the general meaning of a fundamental human condition.
원주3. 리비우스 안에서의 지배의 소시에타스, 코르넬리우스 네포스 안에서의 범죄의 소시에타스... 아퀴나스의 사업가들 사이의 참다운 소이에타스(93)Societas regni in Livius, societas sceleris in Cornelius Nepos. Such an alliance could also be concluded for business purposes, and Aquinas still holds that a "true societas" between businessmen exists only "where the investor himself shares in the risk," that is, where the partnership is truly an alliance(see W. J. Ashley, An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory [1931], p. 419).
원주4. 나는 이제부터 '사람-종류'를 인간종을 지시하는데 쓰고, "사람종류"는 인간존재들의 전체 합계를 가리키는 데에 쓰겠다(93)I use here and in the following the word "man-kind" to designate the human species, as distinguished from "mankind," which indicates the sum total of human beings.
그리스적인 생각을 따르자면, 정치적인 조직체를 만드는 인간역량은 가정(오이키리)이나 가문이 그 중심인 본성자연적인 어쏘시에이션과는 직접적인 대립 속에 서있는 것이었다. 도시국가의 일어남은 사람이 그의 사적인 생명삶을 제외하고 두 번째 종류의 생명삶인 바이오스 폴리티코스(정치적인 삶)를 받았음을 의미했다. 이제 가즌 시민은 실존의 두가지 질서명령들에 속한다. 시민의 생명삶 안에는 그의 가진바의 것(이디온)과 공동체의 것(코논) 사이의 예리한 구별이 생긴다. 프라트리아와 퓔레와 같은 고대 그리스의 친족집단 안에 남아있던 모든 조직된 단위들이 먼저 파괴된 다음에야 폴리스가 건립되었다는 역사적 사실은 아리스토텔레스의 이론이 아니라 단순한 역사적 사실이다. 인간공동체들 안에 현전하는 필수적인 모든 활동들 가운데에서 오직 두가지만이 아리스토텔레스가 바이오스 폴리티코스라고 부르는 바를 컨스티튜트한다. 그것을 이름하자면, 행동(프락시스) 및 발언(렉시스)이다. 인간의 일들의 권역은 이것들의 바깥으로부터 일어나고, 그리고 이 권역으로부터 한낱 필수적이고 쓸모있는 가즌거시기들은 엄격하게 배제된다(93~ 94)According to Greek thought, the human capacity for political organization is not only different from but stands in direct opposition to that natural association whose center is the home(oikiri) and the family. The rise of the city-state meant that man received "besides his private life a sort of second life, his bios politikos. Now every citizen belongs to two orders of existence; and there is a sharp distinction in his life between what is his own(idion) and what is communal(konon)." It was not just an opinion or theory of Aristotle but a simple historical fact that the foundation of the polis was preceded by the destruction of all organized units resting on kinship, such as the phratria and the phyle. Of all the activities necessary and present in human communities, only two were deemed to be political and to constitute what Aristotle called the bios politikos, namely action(praxis) and speech(lexis), out of which rises the realm of human affairs(ta ton anthropon pragmata, as Plato used to call it) from which everything merely necessary or useful is strictly excluded.
도시국가의 건립은 사람들로하여금 그들의 전일적인 생명삶을 정치적인 권력 안에서 행동 및 발언(로고스) 안에서 소비하도록 만들었을 것이다... 근대(에서 생각이 발언을 가르치는 것)와 달리... 메갈로이 로고이(커다란 낱말들)의 역량이 고대의 생각을 가르쳤다. 생각은 발언에 비해 2차적이다... 오직 순전한 폭력만이 벙어리이다 그리고 이런 까닭에 폭력은 전혀결코 위대해질 수 없다. 심지어 고대 말기에 전쟁의 솜씨와 발언(수사학)의 솜씨가 정치적인 교육의 원리적인 두과목으로 출현한 것조차도 이러한 앞-폴리스적인 경험과 전통의 영감 덕분에 개발되었음을 보여준다(95~ 96)However, while certainly only the foundation of the city-state enabled men to spend their whole lives in the political realm, in action and speech, the conviction that these two human capacities belonged together and are the highest of all seems to have preceded the polis and was already present in pre-Socratic thought. The stature of the Homeric Achilles can be understood only if one sees him as "the doer of great deeds and the speaker of great words." In distinction from modern understanding, such words were not considered to be great because they expressed great thoughts; on the contrary, as we know from the last lines of Antigone, it may be the capacity for "great words"(megaloi logoi) with which to reply to striking blows that will eventually teach thought in old age. Thought was secondary to speech, but speech and action were considered to be coeval and coequal, of the same rank and the same kind; and this originally meant not only that most political action, in so far as it remains outside the sphere of violence, is indeed transacted in words, but more fundamentally that finding the right words at the right moment, quite apart from the information or communication they may convey, is action. Only sheer violence is mute, and for this reason violence alone can never be great. Even when, relatively late in antiquity, the arts of war and speech(rhetoric) emerged as the two principal political subjects of education, the development was still inspired by this older pre-polis experience and tradition and remained subject to it.
모든 바디 폴리틱들 가운데에서 가장 수다스러운것이라고 불렸던 폴리스의 경험 안에서, 그리고 심지어 그것으로부터 자라나왔던 바인 정치철학 안에서 더욱더, 행동과 발언(로고스)은 분리되어갔으며, 그리고 마침내는 더욱더 서로 독립된 활동들이 되어버렸다. 강조점은 행동으로부터 발언으로 옮겨졌다.... 정치적이라는 것 곧 어떤 폴리스 안에서 살아간다는 것은 가즌거시기들을, 강제력과 폭력을 통해서가 아니라, 낱말들과 설득을 통해서 결단한다는 것을 의미했다. 그리스적인 스스로-이해함 안에서는, 폭력에 의해 인민을 강제함은, 설득보다는 지휘명령함은, 가정과 가문생활 안에서 가장이 경쟁불가능한 전횡적인 권력들로 지배하는 것과 같은, 또는 하우스홀드(가정경제; 가구; 가계)의 조직체와 흔히 닮아있는 아시아의 야만적인 제국들 안에서의 삶과 같은, 폴리스 바깥의 삶의 특징을 가진 인민들을 다루는, 앞-폴리스적인 방식들이었다(96)In the experience of the polis, which not without justification has been called the most talkative of all bodies politic, and even more in the political philosophy which sprang from it, action and speech separated and became more and more independent activities. The emphasis shifted from action to speech, and to speech as a means of persuasion rather than the specifically human way of answering, talking back and measuring up to whatever happened or was done. To be political, to live in a polis, meant that everything was decided through words and persuasion and not through force and violence. In Greek self-understanding, to force people by violence, to command rather than persuade, were prepolitical ways to deal with people characteristic of life outside the polis, of home and family life, where the household head ruled with uncontested, despotic powers, or of life in the barbarian empires of Asia, whose despotism was frequently likened to the organization of the household.
준 폴리티콘이라는 아리스토텔레스의 사람의 규정은... "준 로곤 에콘(발언역량을 가진 살아있는 존재)"이라는 유명한 두 번째 규정과 같이 생각할 때에만 완전히 이해할 수 있다. 아니말 라티오날레(이성적인 동물)이라는 라틴어 옮김낱말은 "사회적인 동물"과 마찬가지로 어떤 잘못이해하기 때문이다. 아리스토텔레스는 사람을 일반적으로 규정하려고 하지도 않았고, 게다가 사람의 최고의 역량을 지시하려고도 하지 않았다. 아리스토텔레스에게 인간최고역량은 로고스(발언, 추론이성)가 아니라 누우스(관조의 역량)였다. 노예와 이방인이 아네우 로고우(로고스가 없는) 존재인 까닭은 그들이 발언의 능력이 없어서가 아니라, 오직 발언만이 센스를 만드는... 그러한 삶의 어떤 방식이 없기 때문이다(97)Aristotle's definition of man as zoom politikon was not only unrelated and even opposed to the natural association experienced in household life; it can be fully understood only if one adds his second famous definition of man as a zoon logon ekhon("a living being capable of speech"). The Latin translation of this term into animal rationale rests on no less fundamental a misunderstanding than the term "social animal." Aristotle meant neither to define man in general nor to indicate man's highest capacity, which to him was not logos, that is, not speech or reason, but nous, the capacity of contemplation, whose chief characteristic is that its content cannot be rendered in speech. In his two most famous definitions, Aristotle only formulated the current opinion of the polis about man and the political way of life, and according to this opinion, everybody outside the polis— slaves and barbarians— was aneu logou, deprived, of course, not of the faculty of speech, but of a way of life in which speech and only speech made sense and where the central concern of all citizens was to talk with each other.
"폴리티컬"을 "소셜"로 옮기면서 일어난 심각한 잘못이해하기는 하우스홀드(가정경제; 가구; 가계) 지배의 본성자연과 폴리스 지배의 본성자연을 비교할 때보다 더 분명한 곳도 찾기 힘들 것이다... 그리스 및 폴리스 안에서 뿐만 아니라 고대 서구를 전일적으로 통틀어서, 폭군의 권력조차도 심지어는 가장, 도미누스보다 덜 완벽했고, 덜 커다랬다. 그것은 다른 까닭이 있어서가 아니라 단지 가장의 절대적이고 경쟁불가능한 지배와 폴리스적인 권력이 상호배타적이었기 때문이다(97~ 98)The profound misunderstanding expressed in the Latin translation of "political" as "social" is perhaps nowhere clearer than in a discussion in which Thomas Aquinas compares the nature of household rule with political rule: the head of the household, he finds, has some similarity to the head of the kingdom, but, he adds, his power is not so "perfect" as that of the king. Not only in Greece and the polis but throughout the whole of occidental antiquity, it would indeed have been self-evident that even the power of the tyrant was less great, less "perfect" than the power with which the paterfamilias, the dominus, ruled over his household of slaves and family. And this was not because the power of the city's ruler was matched and checked by the combined powers of household heads, but because absolute, uncontested rule and a political realm properly speaking were mutually exclusive.원주12
원주12. 도미누스와 파테르파밀리아스는 동의어이다. 세르부스와 파밀리아리스가 동의어이듯이.... 로마 시민의 자유는 도미누스라는 이름이 황제의 칭호로 채택되었을 때 사라졌다. 그것들은 아우구스티누스 황제와 티베리누스 황제가 저주와 모욕의 명칭이라고 배척했던 것이다(98)The terms dominus and paterfamilias therefore were synonymous, like the terms servus and familiaris: Dominion patrem familiae appellaverunt; servos... familiares(Seneca Epistolae 47. 12). The old Roman liberty of the citizen disappeared when the Roman emperors adopted the title dominus, "ce nom, qu'Auguste et que Tibere encore, repoussaient comme une malediction et une injure"(H. Wallon, Histoire de I'esdavage dans 1'antiquite [1847], III, 21).
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